Ananias Chapel

Ananias Chapel is a small underground chapel located in the former Christian quarter of Damascus, near two of the ancient gates of the old city, Bab Touma and Bab Sharqi. Damascus was an important site of early Christianity, and numerous local legends exist linking Biblical figures to the city. What began as a small community of believers expanded until, by the historic Council of Nicaea in 325 (308 BH), Damascus was able to send its bishop to attend the proceedings.

One of the greatest ties connecting Damascus to early Christianity undoubtedly exists at Ananias Chapel, which is traditionally associated with Acts 9: 1-25, the New Testament passage describing the conversion of Saul of Tarsus (Paul the Apostle) to Christianity. Saul, travelling to Damascus with orders to arrest Christians, is suddenly confronted by a vision of Jesus, who asks, "Saul, Saul why are you persecuting me?" (Acts 9:4). Stricken blind by the vision, Saul follows Jesus’s command to continue into Damascus. Meanwhile, God commands a local Christian, Ananias, to go to a house in the Street called Straight where Saul is lodging, and to lay his hands on him to cure his blindness. After this miraculous healing, Saul is baptized and immediately begins preaching. However, facing threats from the Jews, he is forced to escape Damascus by being lowered in a basket over the city walls. The main events of this story are depicted in a triptych above the altar in the chapel.

The chapel is arranged in a simple L-shape covered with a series of cross vaults. Archaeological excavations undertaken by Eustache de Lorey in 1921 (1339 AH) uncovered the remains of an ancient wall, altars, and inscriptions at the site, suggesting that it has been used for religious worship since pre-Christian times, possibly as a temple connected to the storm god Hadad. Lorey’s excavations also revealed that the site of Ananias Chapel was once the home of a Byzantine-era church, destroyed and replaced with a mosque under Saladin. Saladin’s mosque eventually disappeared as well, but the underground chapel has survived as possibly the only example of early Christian architecture left in Damascus.

Today, Ananias Chapel is an important pilgrimage site for Christians and is in relatively good condition due to its underground location. However, measures are taken to prevent damage from humidity, a common problem in heritage structures in Damascus.

Bimaristan Nur al-Din

The Bimaristan Nur al-Din, constructed in 1154 (549 AH) is the earliest surviving example of an Islamic hospital. It was built by Nur al-Din Mahmud ibn Zengi, ruler of Syria from 1146–1174 (540–569 AH) through a waqf, a charitable endowment meant to fund public and religious institutions. The word “bimaristan” is of Persian origin, meaning “place of the sick,” and the building functioned as both a hospital and medical school. This was not the first hospital in Damascus, as one was established by Al-Walid I in 706 (88 AH); however, according to traveller Ibn Jubayr, the Bimaristan Nur al-Din was larger and better-built.¹

The layout of the bimaristan is based on the four-iwan cruciform plan. This plan, typical of Islamic architecture and used especially for mosques and madrasas, has uncertain origins (with its earliest surviving appearance possibly at Lashkari Bazar in Afghanistan, 998-1030/388-421 AH as suggested by André Godard).² Its use at the Bimaristan Nur al-Din is the first use of the four iwan-plan in a hospital, and the first stone four-iwan construction in the Islamic world. Although the exact function of each of the iwans remains unclear, physician Ibn abi Usaybi‘a described the east iwan as a place for discussion between the head physician and his students after the day’s patients had been treated.³

Indeed, the east iwan is the largest of the four, and contains built-in bookshelves for storing the medical texts donated by Nur al-Din as part of his waqf endowment. Despite this emphasis on passing on medical knowledge, the inscriptions on the iwan dados are quotations from the Quran reflecting that physical healing comes not from human hands, but from the grace of God alone (10:57, 16:68-9, and 26:78-80). Similarly, the foundation inscription, on the horseshoe-shaped wall slab in the east iwan, states that the purpose of the hospital is to prolong health and lifespan merely until one’s divinely-ordained death day arrives. The method of inscription used here, consisting of white marble carved and filled with black paste, later became a characteristic of Zengid architecture in Mosul.

In terms of ornamentation, the Bimaristan Nur al-Din is relatively plain. Some of its most notable decorative aspects are the early examples of muqarnas, a traditional Islamic architectural motif dating from at least 9th or 10th century (3rd or 4th century AH) Iran. Muqarnas, which resembles small niches clustered or arranged in rows, can be found in an ornamental band within the west iwan, in the exterior entrance portal, and as decorative vaulting within the dome of the bimaristan. This vaulting is constructed from stucco suspended below the true, load-bearing stone vault by a wooden framework. There was only one apparent precedent for the muqarnas dome of the bimaristan: the Imam Dur shrine near Samarra, Iraq, built in 1086 (479 AH) and destroyed by ISIS in 2014 (1435 AH). However, due to their differences in construction it is unlikely that the muqarnas dome of the bimaristan was directly based on that of Imam Dur. Either the dome of the bimaristan was a unique invention, or it was based on Iraqi precedents which have not survived. A similar muqarnas dome was used for Nur al-Din’s funerary madrasa, also in Damascus (built 1167/563 AH).

Another decorative motif in the bimaristan is the “karma” or vine frieze along the interior walls of the north and south iwans, added in 1283 (682 AH) by the Mamluk sultan Qalawun. It is an imitation of a similar frieze inside the tomb of his predecessor, Baybars, which in turn was imitated from a frieze in the nearby Umayyad Mosque (the frieze was destroyed by fire in 1893/1310 AH). These shallow relief carvings of intertwined flowers and vegetation show the influence of the Umayyad Mosque on surrounding buildings, as well as the connection between religious and secular architectural styles.

In addition to the 1283 (682 AH) restoration by Qalawun, an extension to the Bimaristan Nur al-Din was added in 1242 (639 AH) by a doctor, Badr al-Din, in order to accommodate more patients. It continued to be used as a hospital until the early 20th century (early 14th century AH), when it was replaced by a modern facility. The building was restored by the Directorate General of Museums and Antiquities in 1979 (1399 AH), and remains in good condition. It now functions as the Museum of Medicine and Science in the Arab World.

Hammam Nur al-Din

This hammam, constructed between 1154–1174 (549–569 AH) by Nur al-Din Mahmud ibn Zengi, ruler of Syria from 1146–1174 (540–569 AH), is still a functioning bathhouse today. It was established to provide funds for the waqf, or charitable endowment, which supported the Nur al-Din Madrasa (built 1167/563 AH).

The key areas of the hammam comprise four distinct spaces. First is the mashlah, the large central room where visitors undress and are provided with towels, and the only area of the hammam which does not receive steam. The mashlah is a later addition, identified as Ottoman by its large dome supported by pendentives and a windowed drum. After undressing, the visitor passes the latrines and enters into the barrani (cold room), usually used as an adjustment area when entering or leaving the hammam. The next area is the wustani (warm room), which can be used as a milder alternative to the hot room and features several annexed chambers where epilation or massage is carried out. Finally, the juwanni (hot room), located next to the boiler, is filled with steam for the visitor to relax and work up a sweat.

The large amount of heat and moisture generated by the hammam means it is constructed very durably. Instead of wooden or stone vaults over the bathing rooms (stone being too heavy), the Hammam Nur al-Din and other Damascene baths use brick, which according to Yasser Tabbaa may have contributed to the widespread use of brick vaulting in Syria.¹ Brick is also used for the walls of the hammam, and its floor is stone to protect against water damage. Stylistically, the Hammam Nur al-Din is distinguished by its domes supported by numerous variations of squinches, which are a characteristic feature of medieval Damascene bathhouses—pendentives are rarely seen before the Ottoman era.

Historically, water was continuously supplied to the boiler room of the hammam, located on the north side of the building, through a cistern. This water was heated in large basins above a chamber containing a wood-burning fire, and the resulting steam was released into the juwanni as described above. Smoke was directed into a channel running underneath the length of the hammam and released through a chimney. Meanwhile, hot water required for the other bathing rooms was carried throughout the building via a system of clay pipes. Hammams in Damascus benefitted from the city’s location along the Barada River and the Roman-era system of canals which provided water to houses, public buildings, and drinking fountains in the city. As many as 100 public hammams had been built in Damascus by the 12^th century (5^th to 6^th century AH), by which time a water distribution system called a tali’ was in use to allocate a certain proportion of water to each neighbourhood in the city.

Bathhouse culture was integral to life in Damascus; however, by the 20^th century (14^th to 15^th century AH), the Hammam Nur al-Din had become neglected and was being used as storage for soap and spices. In 1979 (1399 AH), a request was sent to the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums to rehabilitate the building to function as a hammam once again. Renovations lasted for approximately two years, and included restoring the dome of the mashlah. Today the Hammam Nur al-Din continues to reflect the historic importance of water in the Islamic world, both for cleanliness and as a symbol of prosperity and good living.

Khan As‘ad Pasha

The Khan As‘ad Pasha (built 1751-1752/1164-1165 AH), which has been called “the great masterpiece of Ottoman Damascus,” is a striking example of late Ottoman architecture in Syria.¹ Its patron, As‘ad Pasha al-‘Azm, was part of the powerful ‘Azm family who governed Damascus and the Syrian provinces multiple times throughout the 18^th and early 19^th centuries (12^th to 13^th centuries AH). As‘ad himself had the distinction of governing Damascus for fourteen consecutive years (1743–1757 AD/1156–1170 AH), the only Ottoman official to do so. A shrewd leader, he built his khan at a time of high economic activity in the city, likely seeking to benefit from this increased prosperity.

A khan (or caravanserai) is a type of building intended to temporarily house merchants travelling in caravans, and depending on its setting—urban or rural—may include accommodations combined with areas for stabling animals or trading goods. As the Khan As‘ad Pasha is in the heart of Al-Buzuriya Souq, it does not contain space for stables, but includes shops on its ground floor and a series of forty-four guest rooms on its second floor. Niches along the hallway immediately inside the entrance were originally intended for displaying goods.

Al-Buzuriya Souq became a new public centre in the 18^th century (12^th to 13^th centuries AH) in part due to members of the ‘Azm family buying up large plots of land and filling them with khans, mosques, and madrasas. This building boom created a small but significant golden age of architecture in Damascus, in which the Khan As‘ad Pasha was included. The khan is without precedent in Syria, and is immediately recognizable by its wall-to-wall ablaq masonry courses, central skylight, and eight domes supported by four large piers. Two of these domes were damaged in an earthquake which struck Damascus in 1759 (1172 AH) and covered with pitched roofs, replaced only when the khan was restored in the 1980s (1400s AH). The central dome was apparently never built at all, and may have been left open as an oculus. It is now covered with the skylight. The eight domes contribute to the Ottoman-Damascene style of the khan, a merging of architectural influences which had been developing since the Ottoman takeover of Syria in 1516 (922 AH). In the 18^th century (12^th to 13^th century AH) it achieved its peak, and multiple-domed buildings could be seen across Damascus.

However, the extensive use of ablaq in the khan is perhaps its most notable feature, and one of the most notable features of Damascene architecture as a whole. The style is thought to have originated in southern Syria, which contains large deposits of white limestone and black basalt, although it eventually spread throughout the Islamic world. Ablaq arrived in Damascus approximately at the time of Nur al-Din in the mid-12^th century (mid-6^th century AH), and by the 18^th century (12^th to 13^th century AH) red and yellow stone were sometimes introduced as well. However, the pure and all-encompassing black-and-white ablaq of the khan creates a particularly bold impression.

By the 1970s (1390s AH), the Khan As‘ad Pasha was being used as storage space for merchants in Al-Buzuriya Souq. The Department of Museums and Antiquities purchased the khan and began restoring it in 1980 (1400 AH) to reconstruct the missing domes and strengthen the piers supporting them, as well as restore interior finishes and decoration, such as the gypsum decoration in the dome interiors. Although there was an attempt to transform the khan into a hotel, today it functions as a centre for cultural activities.

Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya

The Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya was built for the Mamluk governor of Damascus, Jaqmaq al-Arghunshawi, between 1418–1420 (821–823 AH). Located just north of the Umayyad Mosque, it was built on the site of an earlier madrasa damaged during Timur’s invasion of Damascus in 1401 (803 AH).

Although a madrasa is usually defined as an Islamic religious school, historically a madrasa was a multi-function building which might also incorporate a mosque, or as in this case, a mausoleum for its patron, in addition to teaching space and lodgings for students. Damascus, which was second only to Cairo during the Mamluk sultanate and a historical centre of learning, had 128 madrasas in this period according to Abd al-Qadir al-Nu‘aymi.¹ The Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya, embellished with ablaq masonry and a band of monumental inscriptions in Thuluth script, is a typical example of the Mamluk appreciation for the symbolic power of architecture, extending even to the exterior of buildings which were usually left plain in Islamic urban settings.

These monumental inscriptions, which also run around the interior of the madrasa walls, are quotations from the Surah al-Mulk, the 67^th chapter of the Quran which takes as its theme the supreme sovereignty of God. The Mamluks, a military ruling elite, used such inscriptions as reflections of both their worldly power and their self-image as defenders of the Islamic faith. Mamluk rulers were also fond of displaying their personal “ranks” (similar to European heraldic blazons) on their buildings, and governor Jaqmaq followed suit by incorporating his rank into a sunburst figure visible on the exterior of the madrasa. However, other characteristics of Mamluk architecture found at the Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya are less symbolically aggressive. Joggled stonework—masonry blocks cut into curved interlocking shapes—became especially popular during this period and can be seen halfway up the interior and exterior walls of the madrasa. Joggled stonework is usually found on voussoirs, lintels, and horizontal courses, and arranged in alternating colours such as black and white. During this time, the “joggled” designs were sometimes achieved merely with inlay or paint instead of cut masonry blocks. The extensive inlaid marble panelling, which particularly highlights the raised prayer hall of the madrasa, is another technique frequently used during the Mamluk period and adds a sense of refined beauty to the mihrab and surrounding walls.

As mentioned above, the Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya includes a mausoleum dedicated to its patron, Jaqmaq, who was killed in 1421 (824 AH) when his attempt to usurp the regency of the sultanate was suppressed. His mother is buried in the adjacent tomb. Although the hadiths indicate that Muhammad himself had insisted on a plain, unmarked burial, only a few decades passed before his grave acquired a marker and the tradition of Islamic mausolea began. Perhaps to offset any suspicion of personal vanity, tombs were usually incorporated inside a mosque or madrasa and ornamented with Quranic verses, as seen here—one may also note the same inlaid marble panelling as found in the prayer hall. Jaqmaq was governor for approximately only two years, but this did not prevent him from securing his legacy through planning for his burial.

The Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya has undergone several changes since its initial construction: three rooms were added to the upper level in the 19^th century (13^th to 14^th century AH), and the building suffered bomb damage to its walls and roof during the Second World War. It was last restored in 1956 (1375 AH) by the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums in Syria. Today, the Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiya houses the Museum of Arabic Calligraphy, the only one of its kind in Syria.

The Tekkiye Süleymaniye

The Tekkiye Süleymaniye is a mosque complex designed by the renowned Ottoman architect Sinan for Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in 1553-1554 (960-961 AH). Sinan, born around 1490 (895 AH) to Greek or Armenian parents in Anatolia, had converted to Islam and become a military engineer as a young man. His works were eventually noticed by Sultan Selim I, who appointed him court architect in 1538 (945 AH), a post at which he remained for fifty years. For many projects, including this one, Sinan delegated direct supervision to an assistant while he remained in Istanbul.

Located outside the city of Damascus at the time of its construction, the Tekkiye Süleymaniye was built to provide services for caravans making the Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca: here, in the countryside just west of Damascus, pilgrims could rest before continuing their long journey into the desert. The Tekkiye comprises a mosque and a range of public facilities including a soup kitchen, stables, and a small number of travellers’ lodgings likely intended for special guests making the Hajj. A madrasa and market were added to the complex in 1560 (967 AH) by Sultan Selim II. The Tekkiye is arranged around a courtyard and central ablution pool, and framed by the mosque to the south, rows of guest rooms to the east and west, and stables and soup kitchen to the north. The madrasa and market are located east of the main complex. Although comparatively small, the mosque is made to look larger through the addition of a portico, a typical feature of Sinan’s designs, echoed by the arcade surrounding the guest rooms and soup kitchen. The repeated motifs of domes and arcades create a sense of balance between the mosque and the subsidiary structures of the Tekkiye, consistent with the designs of Sinan’s mosque complexes in Istanbul.

The Tekkiye can be identified as an Ottoman sultanic building by its twin pencil-shaped minarets, permitted only on mosques with royal patrons. While mosques in provincial centres such as Damascus were granted two, those in central cities such as Istanbul and Edirne often had four, and the penalty of non-royals who attempted more than one minaret could go as far as execution. As Robert Hillenbrand notes, the minarets achieved strong symbolic associations, and “it is hard to overlook the aggressive and ceremonial implications of these gigantic needle-sharp lances clustered protectively, like a guard of honour, around the royal dome.”¹ The wide lead dome of the Tekkiye, which is large and shallow compared to the smaller, more bulbous domes usually seen in Damascus, further gives the mosque a definitively Ottoman appearance. Meanwhile, the underglaze-painted tiles in lunettes over the windows and doors in the Tekkiye, though locally-produced, recall Turkish Iznik tile in their floral patterns and blue-and-green colour scheme. These architectural and decorative choices reveal that on the whole, the Tekkiye Süleymaniye was intended as a clear statement of Ottoman rule in Syria. Yet, one stylistic concession was made for the local character of Damascus in the use of ablaq masonry on the mosque façade. This was apparently imitated from the Qasr al-Ablaq, a palace built by the Mamluk sultan Baybars in 1264 (663 AH) on the same site, which was torn down to make room for the Tekkiye. This curious decision suggests a simultaneous wish to overtake the memory of the previous sultanate while preserving something of its artistic legacy.

Through this imperial mosque complex, Süleyman—whose father Selim I had gained control of Syria in 1516 (922 AH)—could demonstrate personal piety and beneficence while symbolizing the new regime of Ottoman power in Syria. The Tekkiye Süleymaniye was restored by the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums in the 1960s (1380s AH).

Al-‘Azm Palace

Al-‘Azm Palace, built between 1749–1751 (1163–1165 AH) for governor of Damascus As‘ad Pasha al-‘Azm, is one of the most important and beautiful examples of domestic architecture in Damascus. As‘ad, unlike any other imperial official in the city, governed for fourteen consecutive years (1743–1757 AD/1156–1170 AH) and was not a foreign transplant but hailed from a Syrian family destined to have a long history in leadership. While the entire ‘Azm family made their mark on Damascus, architectural projects were a special focus of As‘ad’s leadership: he also built the Khan As‘ad Pasha (featured on this website), as well as numerous other construction and restoration projects in Damascus and along the Hajj pilgrimage route.

Following Middle Eastern tradition, Al-‘Azm Palace is planned around a series of private internal courtyards. The largest is the haramlik, available only to members of the ‘Azm family and their personal servants. Outside guests would be received in the salamlik, a separate suite and courtyard for visitors which includes the qa‘a, the grandest reception room in the palace. A smaller wing, the khadamlik, was intended for servants’ use.

Throughout Al-‘Azm Palace, a sense of luxury and attention to detail pervades, and its decorative program characterizes it specifically as a Damascene home. Coloured pastework, which can be seen on nearly every arch and voussoir in the palace courtyards, achieved its artistic height in Damascus during this period according to art historian Annie-Christine Daskalakis.¹ In this technique, shallow geometric designs are cut into stone and filled with a paste of ground pigments and glue, creating a jewelled or mosaic-like appearance against the warm backdrop of the palace’s ablaq walls. Another Damascene feature of the palace is its series of ‘ajami rooms. Derived from an Arabic word meaning “Persian” or “non-Arabic,” ‘ajami rooms are intricately-patterned chambers with floor-to-ceiling designs resembling traditional Persian carpets. These designs, applied to wood panelling, are a combination of flat painted areas and raised patterns created by applying a paste of gypsum, glue, and water. The decorative motifs could be further embellished with metal leaf.

As its decorative program suggests, As‘ad spared no expense in building his palace and hired hundreds of workmen for the project. According to contemporary commentators, he removed columns from the ancient sites of Dera‘a and Bosra, dragged them to Damascus on chariots, and resized them for use in the haramlik courtyard. He ransacked local markets and diverted water from the Banias spring to extract stones from it, leaving nearby people without a water supply for ten days. Yet despite its beauty and wealth, Al-‘Azm Palace was not a particularly solid construction, as noted by Michel Écochard.² Unlike palaces in the West, which are intended to be used for generations, Islamic palaces were not necessarily meant to last beyond the lifetime of their patron. Demolishing and quickly rebuilding palaces on the same site was common: Al-‘Azm Palace itself was built on the site of a previous palace owned by the Mamluk governor Tengiz.

Despite this, Al-‘Azm Palace continued to be inhabited by the ‘Azm family for nearly two hundred years. It did not experience extensive damage until 1925 (1343 AH), when the French government, having purchased the haramlik from the ‘Azm family three years previously, shelled it during the Great Syrian Revolt. When the conflict ended, French architects Lucien Cavaro and Michel Écochard repaired the palace, and it subsequently housed the French Institute until Syria achieved independence in 1946 (1365 AH). Michel Écochard also built an elegant modern addition to the Palace in 1936 (1355 AH) located in the salamlik courtyard; this white concrete structure was a house intended for use by the director of the French Institute.

In 1951 (1370 AH), the last members of the ‘Azm family vacated the Palace when the Syrian government purchased it from them. At this time, Shafiq Imam, the director of the site, began a large-scale restoration using materials from buildings of the same era that were being demolished or restored. Architectural details and ornamentation were copied from photographs, plans made by the French, and the recollections of members of the ‘Azm family. The haramlik opened to great acclaim and thousands of visitors in 1954 (1373 AH), and further work, including a large-scale restoration of the salamlik, continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s (1370s and 1380s AH).

In 1983 (1403 AH), Al-‘Azm Palace was given an Agha Khan Award for Architecture in honour of its sensitive restoration and the continuing commitment to its maintenance. The palace now houses the Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions, and is a historic site open to visitors.